For simple audio devices, maybe with a hardware revision, but it's unlikely the driver circuitry would be routed back to an analog sensing pin unless you were doing some closed loop feedback stuff
I mean you can literally plug a regular pair of headphones into a microphone port instead of a speaker port, then yell into them, and it'll record your voice.
But yes the Google buds are Bluetooth and use separate microphones to send recorded audio back to the device for voice calls, etc.