[kragen]

I think this question is sort of another way to phrase, "What are the crystal systems [or possibly lattice systems] other than primitive cubic?" And the answer is in https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crystal_system; there are 6 or 31 answers depending on how you look at it. Or maybe the question is "What are the 3-honeycombs other than the cubic honeycomb?" which is discussed in https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Honeycomb_%28geometry%29 and to which there are an infinite number of answers.

Crystal systems are usually described in terms of point lattices, while you're talking about polyhedra, but the Voronoi polyhedra of the points in the lattice are the polyhedra you're looking for. (This is mentioned at the end of the Wolfram™Ⓡ MathWorld™Ⓡ article you linked.) One of my favorites is the cuboctahedral honeycomb corresponding to hexagonal close-packed crystals.

Even within cubic crystals, you could reasonably argue that face-centered cubic crystals "fill[] 3-D space with ‘triangles’".

Honeycombs do not, as I understand it, have to be periodic. In particular, any 3-D rep-tile can be used to tile space in a manner similar to the Penrose tiling, and usually the result is aperiodic. I wrote a 2-D demonstration of this process is at http://canonical.org/~kragen/sw/dev3/skitch#!ffffrrrfffffrrr....