[singingsolitue]

End to end tests definitely end up being flaky, especially in large systems. One level of testing would be unit tests, but e2e tests have their own place, where they do end to end sanity checks. In my experience at Rippling, we have managed to identify a lot of such flakiness by pure first principles reasoning of the behavior, and in most cases, it turned out to be a subtle bug in the code. As the org grows larger, there should be a team that just attacks flaky tests, either from a fix point of view by reviewing tests, or from tools point of view, where finding the gap becomes easier for the product teams!